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By G. F. Vander Voort

Over the past twenty years, steelmakers have introduced improved practices for reducing the inclusion content of steels. The success of these practice changes can be monitored in a variety of ways. Chemical analysis of the bulk sulphur and oxygen contents provides a relatively simple means to assess the impact of these changes. However, microscopical test methods are still needed to assess the nature of the inclusions present. Traditional chartbased measurement methods have wide acceptability, and their data are well understood by both purchaser and producer for heat acceptance purposes. However, these methods do have inherent weaknesses which limit their usefulness for quality control, SPC, and database applications. Image analysis-based chart measurements are an improvement over manually generated chart ratings, but the data still do not lend themselves to databases and statistical comparisons. ASTM Committee E-4 on Metallography has developed a stereologicallybased image analysis standard test method, E 1245, which provides the necessary data in a form which is easily databased and analyzed statistically. This paper describes E 1245 and shows how data from different heats and melting practices can be compared statistically to ascertain valid test differences.

Jan 1, 1998

By Pedro Etchevarne, Santiago Margot, Oscar Baglivo, Roberto Musante, Daniel Costoya, Maria Soledad Oreggioni

Durante 2017, a operação do AF#2 da Ternium Argentina exigiu alterações da basicidade binária em uma ampla faixa entre 2.0 a 2.7 e no teor de MgO. Esta faixa de trabalho motivou o estudo das propriedades metalúrgicas do sinter e sua interação com outros componentes materiais da carga do Alto-Forno. Além disso, foi testado e analisado a influência de duas qualidades diferentes de granulado. Para entender os efeitos da composição química, um conjunto de testes de redução-desintegração foram desenvolvidos. Aliando com perfis isotérmicos (ISO 4696-1), perfis variáveis de temperatura e composição de gás, com intuito de simular a redução no AF. As propriedades sob alta temperatura também foram avaliadas por meio de ensaios de amolecimento e fusão, compondo a carga sinter, pelota e minério granulado. Utilizando amostras de sinter de diferentes basicidades e teores de MgO. Os resultados obtidos e sua influência no comportamento dos altos-fornos são analisados no presente trabalho.

Oct 1, 2019

By Julián M. Ortiz, Antoine Caté, Oy Leuangthong, Ilkay S. Cevik

Mineral resource classification relies on the expert assessment of a qualified person (QP) to determine which blocks of a 3D mineral resource model are classified as measured, indicated, or inferred. The decision is often based on a combination of quantitative parameters related to the estimation process and qualitative decisions based on previous experience or preconceptions not captured in the numerical model. As such, the procedure is subject to inconsistency, that is, blocks with similar qualities may end up in different categories, mainly due to the subjective nature of the approach. In this paper, we present a methodology to assist the qualified person in this task by clustering blocks with similar parameters and then classifying them into categories in a consistent and automatic manner that only requires the specification of a few hyper-parameters. The result is a consistent classification into resource categories comparable to the result of a classification done by a qualified person but fully consistent and generated in a short time frame. The procedure begins with repeatedly sub-sampling the block model to determine a distance matrix using an unsupervised random forest approach and then clustering the blocks using the associated distance matrix. Then, all the blocks in the model are classified using a supervised random forest approach, which gives a probability of belonging to each class. The initial class can be determined from the class probabilities. Support vector classification with a radial basis function kernel is utilized to smooth the boundaries between classes and define the final classification. An approach to tune the hyper-parameters of smoothing is provided. The methodology is demonstrated with two examples from two gold deposits. Results are comparable to the classification done by the project qualified person using conventional methods.

Aug 17, 2021

By A Litwinowicz, M Laxman, A Fourie, A L. Li

This paper presents a design approach and analytical methods that were used for assessing the potential of static liquefaction and developing the mitigation measures for a tailings dams. The rigour of the design and analysis approach represented leading practise in the industry to address static liquefaction, which contributed to a robust design with high confidence and certainty. The salient features of our approach to static liquefaction included geotechnical investigation and tailings characterisation, static liquefaction screening assessment, static liquefaction triggering analysis, limit equilibrium analyses and numerical modelling of static liquefaction using the NorSand model, which was amongst the first tailings dam projects involving numerical modelling of static liquefaction using these methods.

Jul 1, 2021

By Gang Guo, Zhong Liu

"In response to an increasing demand of anchored structures for underground space and transportation infrastructure in China, an innovative underreamed ground anchorage system was created. The novel anchorage system has provided more efficient functions with higher capacity at lower cost, because of the enlarged cylindrical body (known as ECB) sealed in capsule at bottom of anchorage. This paper presents the detailed structure of innovative anchorage system and its special features. To investigate the bearing mechanism of new anchorage, we evaluate its performance and failure mode based on the experimental results, and also indicate its strain-hardening load-displacement relationship. Unlike the shaft anchorages, it is identified no overall failure to be found in soil surrounding the underreamed anchorage. More importantly, the anchorage capacity is governed by the base resistance, which takes more than 80% of total pullout capacity resulting from the contribution of ECB. Finally a case history of anti-floating project introduces the new combined construction approach and procedure, which has provided the contribution to the quality control and cost efficiency.INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUNDThe construction boom over two decades in China has resulted in an increasing demand for underground space and slope stability. The infrastructures market requires the more efficient anchorage systems for retaining structures, resisting uplift forces and slope protection. The major concern focuses on gaining higher capacity and lower cost resulted from perfecting anchorage systems. There are three main anchorage systems designed to achieve the above objectives: ? single bore multiple anchorage system (Barley 1997), ? regroutable anchorage system (Smoltczyk 1991), ? underreamed anchorage systems (Xanthakos 1991). Generally, the concept ? comparing with the other two, can be more competitive due to its distinct advantages. To improve the performance and durability of ground anchorages under the complex geological conditions and diversified engineering requirements, a number of different underreamed anchorage technologies had been used, which included cone - shape anchorage described by Liao, Wu and Shu (1997) in Taiwan, Soilex anchorage developed in Sweden (Massarsch et al. 1997), Soletanche anchorage proposed in France, blasting anchorage used in Czechoslovakia (Hobst and Zajic 1986), jet-grouting anchorage innovated in Europe (Anon 1988), as well as deep mixing anchorage created in Japan (Cheng et al. 2000).The underreamed anchorage systems have the remarkable advantages compared to the shaft anchorage system. However, there are also some weaknesses inherent in the underreamed systems. For instance, the mechanical underreamed anchorage is unsuitable in sand or waterbearing ground, because the enlarged hole is easy to collapse, and it is hard to ensure the quality of anchorages. On the other hand, relying on the blasting in deep hole, the geometrical space and dimension of enlarged hole is uncontrollable, meanwhile, the continuous blasting operations may easily cause the serious ground deformation and the negative effects to the completed anchorages."

Jan 1, 1900

By H. A. Domian, H. Biloni, G. F. Bolling

Jan 1, 1965

By S. Caron, P. Radziszewski

Industrial practice in mineral processing shows that an important problem in understanding and monitoring in-mill parameters is due to the lack of fundamental knowledge and appropriate sensors. However, over the last decade, Discrete Element Method (DEM) modelling has shown an interesting potential in describing the fundamentals of grinding mill behaviour, in improving the understanding of internal grinding mill dynamics, and in developing solutions to industrial practice. With the objective of bringing this modelling technology into the concentrator control room to assist operators, this paper aims to describe the main elements needed to apply this emerging and developing technology to on-line mill performance monitoring.

Jan 1, 2004

By C. C. E. Pretorius, V. M. Mathoho, A. van Zyl, R. J. Mostert

The in-service degradation of the mechanical properties of steel components through the damage mechanism of high temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA), is a topic of concern in the refining and green hydrogen industry. This damage mechanism occurs in susceptible steels operating in environments at high temperatures and hydrogen pressures. The current investigation deals with the indirect monitoring of mechanical degradation via tracking of the swelling strain in affected structures. An autoclave with an AISI 316 shell was utilized to simulate accelerated HTHA damage at 550 °C and 46 bar for exposure times ranging from zero to 700 hours. The progress of the HTHA damage was tracked using encapsulated high-temperature strain gauges. The correlation between the swelling strain and mechanical property degradation was studied to develop a methodology for the continuous monitoring of embrittlement. The tensile sample orientation of the carbon steel plate was included as a variable, i.e., samples parallel, transverse, or perpendicular to the plate rolling direction were included, since it has been shown that the sample orientation influences the HTHA damage features. For the through-thickness orientation, and upon exceeding a threshold value of exposure time, all tensile properties were severely degraded, with values in the order of a 90 per cent reduction being observed. It was found that the degradation of carbon steel mechanical properties can be correlated to the swelling strain measured during exposure. The critical point for mechanical property degradation in the plate through-thickness orientation, whereafter a severe decrease in the ductility of the material occurs, was found to be in the order of 1% of the total swelling strain measured during exposure, equivalent to 65 microstrain. This threshold was found to be significantly lower than that expected from the literature, where limits of 400 to 1000 microstrain were postulated.

Nov 27, 2024

By E. Suárez, V. Rivasplata

El proyecto Piel Canela está ubicado en los distritos de San Luis y San Bernandino en la provincia de San Pablo dentro de la región Cajamarca. La geología muestra unidades volcánicas del Paleógeno (Paleoceno – Eoceno/Oligoceno) las cuales se presentan deformadas. El basamento en el área de estudio está representado por secuencias de depósitos volcanoclásticos gris verdosos intercalados con flujos de lava, de manera concordante ocurre sobreyaciendo a esta unidad una secuencia de flujos piroclásticos de pómez y cenizas con intercalaciones de flujos de lava compactos. Además se observan en las partes más altas flujos piroclásticos de composición dacítica rica en cristales con coloraciones gris blanquecinas.

May 1, 2008

By Dave Forrester

Mining subsidence over shallow abandoned coal mine workings is unfortunately not an uncommon experience in the coalfields of North America and there is a significant knowledge and literature base addressing the phenomenon and related issues. From time to time, however, a case history arises which is outside the more routine occurrence. This paper addresses one such case and presents an overview of a subsidence Event above abandoned coal workings, which badly damaged a two-story High School building. The subsidence at the Cape Breton & Victoria Regional School Board (CBVRSB)'s MacDonald High School in Dominion, N.S., Canada on October 30, 2002 led to a detailed investigation. It was concluded that the ground movement and associated building damage had been caused by mining subsidence in underlying old underground coal mine workings of the 1890s, only 150 ft deep at the School. The Event was not isolated and a similar but smaller event happened nearby a few months later. The paper describes the events and summarizes the subsequent investigations and findings. The 17-year old High School building was eventually demolished.

Jan 1, 2004

By Peter J. Conroy, Julianne H. Gyarmaty

INTRODUCTION The current study is part of the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) on-going subsidence research program. The long-term objective of the DOE program is to develop analytical methods of subsidence prediction applicable over a broad range of geologic and mining conditions encountered in the United States. The DOE currently has several contracts in progress to develop a sound data base that can be used in the development of predictive models. Dames & Moore is currently under contract to DOE to collect and analyze detailed subsidence and hydrologic data from a coal mine employing longwall mining methods in the Eastern Coal Province. Work under Contract No. DE-AC22-80PC 30335 began in October of 1980 and will continue through September of 1984. The contract includes monitoring of two adjacent longwall panels. This paper summarizes the surface monitoring work that was performed through February of 1982. Mining of the first of the two panels (3 off 3 north) was completed on February 3, 1982. Results of the surface monitoring through completion of this panel are presented and discussed. SITE DESCRIPTION The mine being studied is located in eastern Ohio. The site is west of the Ohio River, approximately 56 km (35 miles) south of Wheeling, West Virginia. The topography of the unglaciated region

Jan 1, 1982

By Sean Gallagher

Bolting large sheets of wire mesh screen (WMS) to the roof of underground mines prevents injuries due to rock falls. However, WMS can be heavy and awkward to lift and transport, and may result in significant spinal loading. Accordingly, six male subjects (mean age =45.8 years + 7.5 SD) were recruited to lift WMS in a laboratory investigation of the biomechanical demands. Biomechanical modeling was used to estimate external moments about L5-S1 for sixteen lifting tasks, using two sizes of WMS. Full-size WMS involved a two-person lift, while half-size WMS involved a one-person lift. Lifts were performed under 168 cm and 213 cm vertical space. Restriction in vertical space increased the maximum L5-S1 extensor moment from 254 to 274 Nm and right lateral bending moment from 195 to 251 Nm. Lifting full sheets of screen (as opposed to half sheets) resulted in an average 33 Nm increase in L5-S1 extensor moment. The L5-S1 extensor moment was increased by an average of 44 Nm (18%) when lifting screens positioned flat on the floor compared to an upright position. Relevance to industry: Large flexible materials are commonly lifted in industrial work environments, and may involve the efforts of two or more workers. The current study examines the low back loading associated with lifting large flexible screens and presents recommendations to reduce spine loading.

Jan 1, 2009

By J. Daraisme

Société le Nickel (SLN) exploits the Dôme lateritic nickel orebody at its Tiébaghi operations in New Caledonia. The site geology has an obvious bearing on recovery and metallurgical performance, and the controls are extremely complex at all scales: lithology, oxidation-reduction conditions, mineralogy, and multivariate geochemistry. In that context, establishing an adapted recoverable resource estimation method that is efficient and transparent proves an interesting challenge. The method must address the key notions of: ? Support effect: the exploration data-set can only warrant the estimation of large panels 20×20×3 m3, which are much larger than the selective mining units (SMUs) of 5×5×3 m3 ? Information effect: the selection at production stage uses estimates based on information much denser than that available for mine planning. The problem is rendered more complex in this type of deposit by the fact that the additive variables used for any estimation process (metal accumulation and ore tonnage) are not the ones used to establish the selection at mining stage (i.e. the nickel grade of SMUs, which is the ratio of accumulation on tonnage). Eventually, the selection criteria involve not only Ni grades but also other constituents such as Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, and SiO2. The solution presented in this paper is the construction of a platform of SMU multivariate simulations in the saprolitic horizon, together with efficient post-processing aimed at producing the multivariate recoverable resource estimates. The efficiency constraints imposed by the number of blocks to be simulated (1.5 million) lead to resorting to direct block simulations. The underlying multivariate discrete Gaussian model (DGM), the validity of which is tested beforehand, is put to good use to mimic the selection process at the mining stage, by offering the ability to simulate in each block a composite value located at random within the block. Finally, the paper presents the application of a scenario reduction algorithm to pick a representative subset of a few simulations to help appraise the risk attached to the downstream phases (reserve optimization, mine sequencing) of the project. The implementation presented here is for the first generation of the Scenario Reduction plugin built in Isatis software, where measuring the distance between the initial set of scenarios and the reduced set is based on Ni quantities only. Research is under way to adapt the measure to the true multivariate nature of the problem.

Jan 1, 2014

By Glenn Clarke, Ben Holloway, Barry Lumsden

"BHP-Billiton’s Cannington mine in Northwest Queensland produces a silver-rich lead concentrate and a zinc concentrate. The plant has the capacity to treat 3.1 mta and for the year to June 2006 mean feed grade was 10.3% Pb, 461 g/t Ag and 3.7% Zn. Recovery losses of lead and silver are primarily in the fine fractions. In 2001, the plant was modified when it was determined that splitting the lead feed into two size fractions, and floating the two fractions separately increased fine lead and silver recovery. The fine lead fraction (called the split float) is 80% <16µm and about a quarter of the lead and silver is in the finest fractions. In 2006 to further improve lead and silver recovery a statistical plant trial of magnetic aggregation conditioning of the split float feed was undertaken. While pure galena is diamagnetic the Cannington galena contains iron within the galena mineral resulting in the galena having a paramagnetic, magnetic susceptibility. The trial demonstrated to greater than 98% statistical significance an increase in lead recovery, and to 99% statistical significance an increase in silver recovery, and to greater than 97% significance an increase in the lead in concentrate in the split float circuit. These economic recovery benefits with magnetic aggregation of the split float feed, has led to the incorporation of this technology in the plant.INTRODUCTIONThe BHP-Billiton owned Cannington silver, lead and zinc mine is located in the Australian state of Queensland about 800 kilometres west of the coastal city of Townsville. This is a pastoral area characterised by large cattle farms, low population density and very little infrastructure. The area has two seasons, a wet, hot summer and a dry, mild winter. Because of its isolation and lack of infrastructure the mine has always operated on a fly in fly out basis.Geological drilling defined the resource as 43.8 million tonnes grading 11.6% lead, 4.4% zinc and 538 ppm silver (Walters and Bailey, 1998). At times during its history Cannington has held the crown as the single largest lead and silver mine in the world (Torrisi and Smith 2003). Another unique characteristic of the operation’s history is the rapid progress from discovery to operation. The first drill to intersect the ore body was in 1990 and the mine and plant was commissioned in 1997."

Jan 1, 2008

By H. Maleki

Roof falls continue to affect productivity and safety in U.S. coal mines in spite of significant increases in support utilization in recent decades. To minimize roof stability problems while controlling support effectiveness, the U.S. Bureau of Mines is conducting research on support and ground monitoring techniques. Practical implementation of this research is presented in this paper. Instruments to monitor rock mass deformation, support loads, and microseismic emissions have traditionally been used to assess roof stability. Controlled-source seismic surveys are being used as well. In this paper, measurement techniques are reviewed, and the effectiveness of deformation measurements is demonstrated. This is achieved by an analysis of deformation history from four case studies in room-and-pillar retreat mines. In spite of differences in geologic, geometric, and support conditions in these mines, roof behavior is shown to have been similar prior to failure. The rate of roof movement is suggested as a reliable indicator of roof stability.

Jan 1, 1993

By Galen G. Waddell

Several years of rock-burst research conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the mining companies of the Coeur d&apos;Alene mining district, Idaho, in addition to progress made by others throughout the world, have led to a good understanding of the rock-burst problem. This paper describes conditions which have caused specific bursts, present capabilities of detecting stress buildup and bursts, control methods, and a suggested approach to analyzing any individual mine-burst problem. A rock burst is the sudden, violent release of stored strain energy in rock by some mechanism of rock failure, generally accompanied by expulsion of rock with consequent damage to the mine. A burst may be audible for only a few hundred feet, or on the surface it may sound like a sonic boom miles away. A Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms, U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM)* 1968yand defines a burst as Bureau "That phenomenon which occurs when a volume of rock is strained beyond the elastic limit and the accompanying failure is of such a nature that accumulated energy

Jan 1, 1971

By Paul Averitt

require both time and money. Any attempt to secure a quick answer will yield a figure that very likely cannot be substantiated, and certainly will not yield information in the detailed form now desired. It will be about 10 years before a completely new estimate can be prepared for the coal reserves of the United States at our present rate of progress, though of course, much information will be available in the interim. We would like to present such information as we obtain in the form most acceptable to the industry, and to that end we are working closely with coal resource committees of the AIME, the National Bituminous Coal Advisory Council, and the Bureau of Mines. DISCUSSION G. H. Cady*—Mr. Averitt&apos;s description of the nature of the coal resources investigations of the United States Geological Survey and the progress of this work is very timely in view of the general interest in the subject of coal resources. The Federal Survey is obviously taking the "long view" with respect to the appraisal of the coal resources as part of the preparation of the general geological map of the country and the attendant determination of the quantity of all mineral and fuel resources. It is apparently for regional surveys of the conventional type that the detailed procedures employed by the Federal Survey are applicable. Even if so it is somewhat unexpected to find the same criteria for evaluation will be applied to the country as a whole. The work on coal resources appraisal has been proceeding at various rates in a number of coal producing states for various periods. Undoubtedly since there has been no common practice in the method of appraisal the states each have worked independently and independently of the Federal Survey, and each has adopted certain practices to meet local conditions. I do not know how much consideration has been given by the U. S. Geological Survey to these practices. It seems probable that such consideration might result in important modifications of the standards which apparently have been set up by the Federal group in line with local requirements. It is the practice in some state surveys to present the facts in regard to the occurrence and distribution of coal beds and their variations in thickness down to thicknesses of 1 to 1 1/2 ft in relatively narrow stages up to maximum thickness. It is then possible for any one using such figures to compile quantitative estimates of workable coal at various minimum thickness limits. This is a desirable objective where surveys are detailed and information correspondingIy good. However, vast quantities of coal lie in beds that are relatively thin about which little information is available and the quantity of such coal might affect the final appraisal to the extent of several thousand million, depending upon the minimum limitation observed. Thus in the case of Illinois a difference of 1 ft in average thickness of coal in the coal field would make a difference of approximately 35 billion tons in the estimated quantity present. One is dealing with a very large area and small differences in thicknesses are very irnportant in the overall picture. The estimate of 10 years to accomplish the sort of detailed appraisal outlined by Mr. Averitt is viewed somewhat skeptically and certainly would require many more trained geologists than seem to be available. The requisite detailed mapping and study are very time consuming not only because of the geological field work required, which is difficult in certain seasons, but also in order to assemble data from company and personal files, and to study drill records and cores, and to sample and analyze the coal. Unless the staff of geologists could be increased in the order of several hundred per cent the prospects are that the appraisal of the type suggested will require many decades not just one. The permanent value of such appraisal, however, is not questioned and it should be expedited as rapidly as means allow. Satisfactory appraisal is not easily achieved and will vary from time to time. The main function of a geological survey is to collect and present the facts that will make possible appraisal in terms of existing conditions by individuals, particularly engineers, qualified by training and expcrience for making such estimates. Thickness and character of the coal bed, nature of the overlying and underlying strata, position, thickness, and character of "partings," relationship to other coal beds, and a variety of other factors must be assembled by the geologist in order to present a complete picture of the geological setting. The economic and engineering factors are in general outside the field of geological experience. The geologist should see to it that the pertinent geological facts are available; much more information than simply thickness and depth of the coal beds is essential to meet all the requirements of appraisal in the future as well as at present. With respect to the present demand by engineers and coal mine operators and others for a rapid re-appraisal of the available coal resources, in the light of existing practices and those in immediate prospect, the Federal procedure of systematic mapping and appraisal is scarcely in line. It will be necessary for those particularly interested in having such an estimate made to establish standards with respect to the various factors involved so that the scope of the geological work can be definitely restricted for the various coal fields. There is little use in setting up general standards since no such standards will be applicable to all fields. Thus it is folly to establish a standard minimum thickness to be generally applicable which is one-half to one-third the minimum minable thickness in some fields. The greatest difficulty in appraisal of the presently actually workable coal bed lies in the variation in the importance placed on roof, floor, structural conditions, bedded impurities. sulphur content and other factors that affect judgment relative to the value of a coal bed. It is doubtful whether any appraisal will have universal approval in view of the variable factors involved. For this reason if none other, the facts should be carefully and painstakingly assembled after the manner of a systematic geological survey such as that advocated by Mr. Averitt. Only upon the basis of sucb information can reliable estimates be made in line with selected conditions. Paul AveRitt (author&apos;s repty)— In this paper I discussed, but did not define as such, two major phases of our activities on coal, which are closely related, and which normally we in the U. S. Geological Survey see as an integrated whole. It is understandable, therefore, that Dr. Cady should assume that my remarks applied only to the current work on coal reserves with which I am directly concerned. In view of Dr. Cady&apos;s discussion, however, I think a brief summary of the two phases of U. S. Geological Survey activities on coal will be appropriate. The long-term function of the U. S. Geological Survey on coal investigations is to make detailed geologic studies, involving the preparation of detailed geologic maps showing the outcrops and correlations of coal beds, direction and dip of coal-bearing rocks, nature and thickness of overburden, location of faults and fold axes, and similar features. Such studies also yield many measured sections of coal and associated strata, which show variations in the thickness of the beds, and the intervals between coal beds. Taken as a whole, detailed geologic studies provide much useful information for mine operators and engineers. As Dr. Cady points out, this type of geologic work is arduous and time consuming, but it provides the basic data that are necessary both in the development of our coal fields, and also in the preparation of coal-reserve estimates, which are discussed in the next paragraph. The U. S.

Jan 1, 1950

The Key Issues - An Overview Minerals industry needs Mining companies want technologies which are ò cost-effective, ò high likelihood of delivery (ie transfer existing technologies from other industries), ò highly useable, ò an evolutionary rather than revolutionary approach, and ò to be developed in partnership with the mine, supply groups and researchers, For example, `soft&apos; systems for information collection to better manage the mining process rather than mechanical systems.

Jan 1, 1997

By J. D. McKay

Continuous column flotation parameter testing, to improve operating methodologies, using coarse bubbles on fluorite ore from Nevada, revealed that retention time is the predominant factor affecting column flotation fluorite recoveries. Column height and feed injection location affected fluorite grades and recoveries because they affected particle retention times in the collection and cleaning zones. Other parameters tested, including froth depth, wash water addition, and axial mixing, showed varying results. Four defined zones within the column were found to have characteristic rates of upgrading per vertical foot. Fluorite-gangue separation was more efficient in a column than in a conventional cell at all particle sizes.

Jan 1, 1987

By Thomas C. Shapiro

This is the second in a series of articles on microcomputers and applications in the minerals industry. The first article (ME, Feb., page 129) discussed microcomputer terms and concepts. This article will discuss software for geology and mining. The third article will cover plant, administrative, and geotechnical software applications. Introduction Geology and exploration are areas where computers have a natural fit. Large volumes of data need to be tabulated, evaluated, and made into maps and reports that allow geologists and management to make a decision on a project or mine. Until recently, the programs that performed these tasks were cumbersome and not user friendly by any stretch of the imagination. Learning time to become an expert in these programs typically would be six months or more. The computers needed to run these programs are expensive mainframes. Several years ago, the use of minicomputers became popular because of their lower cost. Programs were adapted to fit these smaller machines and became friendlier. With the advent of micros, many programs. were rewritten and used the screen capability more effectively, thus providing a real advance in user interface. Programs and Price The definition of micro, mini, and mainframe is becoming blurred. For the purposes of this article, micro refers to either an eight- or 16-bit computer, costing less than $10,000 and, more typically, under $5,000. Mini refers to a 16- or 32-bit computer that typically costs more than $25,000. Mainframe refers to a 32-bit or larger computer that costs more than $250,000. There is a large gray area between micros and minis, and minis and mainframes. Technology and prices are changing so fast that the traditional definitions have become almost meaningless and price has become a better guide. With the arrival of the minicomputer, costs for hardware began to fall, but the programs have tended to remain unfriendly. In some cases, the minicomputer acted as a front end to the mainframe. Cost of both the programs and minicomputers could easily run a minimum of $70,000. A total cost of $200,000 would not have been out of line. The average geologist and company would have a great deal of difficulty justifying such a purchase. The advent of the microcomputer has changed all that. For $3,500 to $5,000, one can buy a 16-bit micro and a printer. Plotters with six pens are available for $2,000 that will produce a 280- x 430-mm (11- x17-in.) map. For several hundred dollars, software is available to act as a word processor, an economic spread sheet, or to perform ground water calculations. In fact, some programs are available for free. Some of these programs are relatively easy to learn. In addition, programs are being developed daily that are easy to use. More importantly, large programs that once ran only on mainframes are being converted

Jan 3, 1984