Search Documents

By Jason Buenker, Molly Winston

Torque-installed piles are gaining popularity in Southern California as the go-to deep foundation element for small- to medium-capacity loads in urban environments. The torque-installed pile is a displacement- based screwed pipe pile with a closed-end conical tip welded to the bottom of the pipe. Torque-installed piles are most efficient in loose to medium dense soils with high liquefaction potential. Where used properly, torque-installed piles can be installed faster, require less clean-up, and create less onsite vibration/disturbance than other pile alternatives. However, torque-installed piles are not applicable in all soil conditions and care must be used to apply the pile effectively in the correct subsurface environment. This paper will review current Southern California state-of-the-practice for torque-installed pile design and construction, potential roadblocks to successful installation, and available capacities from load tests. INTRODUCTION Torque-installed piles are a type of full-displacement screwed pipe pile originally developed in Southern California circa 2001 by Substructure Support, Inc. The pile is unique for its proprietary closed-end conical tip shown in Fig. 1. The tip has a welded steel-helix plate and cutter teeth that allow the pile to be advanced efficiently under applied torque and down pressure (crowd). Since original development of the pile, several contractors or manufacturers have proposed similar proprietary screw-type piles with comparable conical tips. Pile installation is relatively quiet, vibration-free, does not generate spoils, and faster than comparable pile types. The pile was originally developed as an alternative to driven pile foundations and remains a critical substitute to driven foundations in urban environments. Torque-installed piles are conventionally specified as 12 ¾-inch outside diameter (OD) steel pipes with a ⅜-inch-thick wall, although larger sizes with alternative dimensions have been used outside Southern California. Pile installation lengths generally range from 30 to 50 feet but may reach 80 feet or greater where soil conditions permit. The pile is generally backfilled with concrete following installation to increase lateral pile stiffness and may incorporate rebar cages or other reinforcing steel to facilitate connections to structural elements. The pile is frequently specified using performance-based specifications that encourage contractor innovation and use of proprietary installation means and methods.

Jan 1, 2019

By G. W. Ostroot, S. Shryock

Cementing deep, high-temperature oil wells where static temperatures range from 350 to 400F has become routine in the part decade. In the United States there were 271 wells drilled deeper than 15,000 ft during 1963. Many of these wells had static temperatures higher than 400F. Bottom-hole static temperatures near 700F are now realities in the geother-mal (steam producing) wells of California's Salton Sea area. The detailed planning initiated prior to drilling the wells is discussed together with the methods, materials and equipment used in solving the cementing problems which are encountered. Data are also presented that lead to development of cementing compositions that provide adequate thickening time, do not retrogress in strength, and maintain low permeability under these extreme temperature conditions. Field data include the cementing programs used on eight relatively trouble-free geothermal steam wells in the Salton Sea area. INTRODUCTION Not too many years ago cementing oil wells with temperatures in the range of 300F caused considerable anxiety. In some areas of the United States it is now fairly common to cement wells having bottom-hole static temperatures in excess of 400F. We are now confronted with the problem of cementing wells with temperatures ranging from 500 to 700F. Temperatures in this order of magnitude are often found in geothermal steam wells. From where does this extreme heat emanate? There are many theories as to the source of this steam flow. The most widely held views are: (1) heat- ing of ground water fairly close to the surface by an intrusive mass of hot rock; (2) steam generation from a reservoir of metamorphic rock, normally found below 25,000 ft and not at the shallower depths of the Salton Sea reservoir; and (3) high-temperature gases (water vapor) escaping and migrating from molten or semi-molten rock (magma) at a considerable depth. Of these. No. 3 seems to be the most generally acceptable explanation. Heat from springs and fumaroles has been used for years as a means of heating and cooking; however, significant progress in harnessing the vast power of underground steam reservoirs has been relatively slow. The first large-scale attempt to use the heat generated by steam from wells was made in Italy around the beginning of the 20th century. In excess of 250,000 kw of electrical power is now being produced from holes around Larde-rello, Italy. Another very active drilling program was initiated in the volcanic area of New Zealand in 1949.' Natural steam for power projects in the United States began in the early 1920's. An early commercial steam field is located at the Geysers, approximately 75 miles north of San Francisco, an area discovered in 1847 and used for many years as a health resort. Steam originates from 15 wells that have been drilled since 1957. The present output from this project is 25,000 kw. Success of the Geysers operation has been responsible for several companies taking a careful look at the feasibility of producing steam for power generation in the Salton Sea area of Southern California's Imperial Valley. Geothermal steam activity in this latter area began in 1961 when O'Neill, Ashmun and Hilliard completed Sportsman No. 1, at that time the hottest wellbore in the world.' Since its References given at end of paver. completion seven additional wells have been successfully completed in this area. Many problems encountered in drilling steam wells had to be overcome to make the ventures successful. Formation temperatures encountered in the Salton Sea seemed to be a straight-line function (a gradient of 13F per 100 ft of depth).' This imposed severe conditions on all aspects of drilling and completion. This varied, to some extent, from gradients in the older geothermal areas. Not to be overlooked is the effect of these temperatures on casing creep or elongation by thermal expansion (Table I), because standard API flanged wellhead equipment makes no provision for this kind of performance. Floating equipment was redesigned, and changes in types of downhole equipment were made in an effort to eliminate anticipated problems. In the later completed wells, standard oil-well cementing equipment has been used. During the early development of geothermal steam wells there were some problems resulting from blowouts. However, these were eliminated in the deeper Salton Sea wells and no problems were encountered with the drilling mud. A sodium surfactant mud was used on the Sportsman No. 1 to drill from 2,690 to total depth. Nevertheless, it was necessary that a cooling system be added and the mud cooled before circulating it back into the well. The difficulty in evaluating the size of the steam area and its potential in terms of pounds of steam and years of productivity still has not been resolved. Economic complexities have also entered into the steam play in the Salton Sea. The wells at the Geysers were drilled at a cost of $15,000 to $20,-000, whereas the Salton Sea wells will cost more than $150,000. This cost differential has to some extent been accounted for because of the heavily

Jan 1, 1965

By W. S. Landers

This report presents a study by the Federal Bureau of Mines of technical factors related to the production of special carbon and tar from selected Wyoming coals. Certain Wyoming high-volatile bituminous and subbituminous coals were processed in bench-scale apparatus to determine potential carbonization yields and in pilot plant retorts to produce sufficient char and tar for testing. These tests have shown that a critical selection of coal is necessary when the coal is processed for a specialized carbon. Generally high yields of tar are obtained from low-temperature carbonization of Wyoming high-volatile bituminous and subbituminous coals, and the yield of tar usually increases with increase in rank within this range of coals. The production and evaluation of industrial carbons from Wyoming coals by using pilot plant and bench-scale techniques is part of the continuous program of upgrading western coals. It has been found that: 1. Most Wyoming coals are nonagglomerating and may be carbonized in fluidized systems. Chars produced in pilot plant retorts at low temperatures contain about 17 to 23 pct, residual volatile matter and are easily ignited. These chars appear suitable as power plant fuel. The tar-plus-light-oil yields range from 14 to 40 gal./ton of raw coal processed. 2. Wyoming high-volatile coals produce a slightly smaller and somewhat weaker coke than currently mined Western United States high-volatile coals used commercially as blending stock in metallurgical coke production.

Jan 1, 1961

By Henry F. Hebley

THE solid fuel industry, especially that branch represented by bituminous coal, is gradually becoming aware of its ? paramount importance in a world where there is an ever increasing demand for the products of a mechanical age. In practically every process of manufacture, the necessity for energy in some form is being multiplied. Some of that prime energy is derived from water power-hydro-electric schemes, flood control schemes, etc. - but often the electrical energy thus developed is generated at great distances from the load centres, requiring long transmission lines with consequent transformer and transmission losses. A few plants have harnessed the tidal power of the seas and one has harnessed the energy of the wind in a modern manner. All of these schemes are dependent on certain natural geographical, hydrographical, and physical advantages of terrain, as well as an adequate area of consumption of the energy developed. If flood control is the primary object, then power generation is a by-product; and the economics of large capital expenditure on power generating equipment must be considered in that light.

Jan 1, 1945

By F. Sillers, R. T. C. Rasmussen

"INTRODUCTION This is the third report of investigations by the Bureau of Mines in cooperation with industry to establish the value of electrolytic manganese in the manufacture of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. The manganese was produced by the Bureau at its Boulder City pilot plant from domestic ores and by the process developed by it. 4/ The work was done under the direction of R.S. Dean, assistant director, Bureau of Mines, and R. G. Knickerbocker, chief, metallurgical branch. The first report dealt with the use of electrolytic manganese in the manufacture of stainless steels 5/ and the second with its use in acid electric or open-hearth low- and medium-carbon steel castings. 6/The present report treats of the use of electrolytic manganese in the manufacture of low—carbon rimmed and killed steels. A résumé of these three investigations and two others appeared in the magazine STEEL. 7/ Further reports will be published as tests are completed at some 70 industrial plants. All tests were made on full—scale heats or melts, and the resultant product was processed and used commercially."

Jul 1, 1945

By O. Bazhko, F. D. L. Uahengo, Y. R. S. Hara

Although the conventional acid-reductive leaching method effectively extracts copper (Cu) and cobalt (Co) from Cu–Co oxide ores, efforts to enhance hydrometallurgical performance are ongoing. This study evaluates the influence of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and sodium metabisulphite (Na2S2O5) on metal extraction from Zebesha Cu–Co oxide ore using ferrous sulphate heptahydrate (FeSO4·7H2O) and ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3) as lixiviants. Ore samples (<150 μm) were leached at ambient temperature for two hours, and metal concentrations were determined via X-ray fluorescence analysis. In the FeSO4·7H2O system, Co, Mn, and Ni recoveries increased w=ith Na2S2O5 concentration, reaching a maximum of approximately 80% Co at 150 kg/t, while Cu recovery remained below 5%. Conversely, with Fe2(SO4)3, Cu recovery peaked at 88% at 50 kg/t Na2S2O5, then declined to 79% at 150 kg/t. The addition of H2SO4 improved metal recoveries in both systems. Notably, 60 kg/t H2SO4 yielded 92% Cu extraction in Fe2(SO4)3, while Co, Ni, and Mn remained below 40%. However, in FeSO4·7H2O, Co recovery improved from 40% to 84%. These findings suggest Na2S2O5 is more effective for cobalt extraction with FeSO4·7H2O, whereas H2SO4 enhances copper extraction in Fe2(SO4)3.

Oct 24, 2025

CHARGING of an open-hearth heat is begun as soon as possible after the previous heat has been tapped. Ordinarily, about 40 min. is required to drain and dress the furnace hearth, make up the tap hole, and perform routine repairs of the banks. Repairs to the upper back wall and to the front wall and jambs can ordinarily be done while the first scrap charge is being heated and are therefore allowed to wait in order to save furnace time. Any major repairs required on the hearth or other parts of the furnace necessitate longer delays, because such repairs must be made while the furnace is empty. Although charging practice varies considerably in detail with the type and proportions of scrap and iron used, many factors are common to all varieties of&apos; charge. Such general considerations are dealt with first. GENERAL CHARGING PRACTICE Charge materials are discussed in detail in Chapter IV; the present chapter is concerned with the charging, melting, and proportioning of the raw materials in the various types of furnace practice. Charging Equipment and Stock Handling. The physical equipment available for loading and weighing the stock, transporting it to the furnace, and charging it may have a major effect on charging practice. Limestone, scrap, and all other solid melting stock are charged mechanically by means of equipment described in Chapter I (see also Fig. 18, page 33). It is generally desirable to charge the scrap about as fast as the physical volume can be got into the furnace. A limiting factor may be the height to which the scrap may be piled in the furnace without deflecting the flame to such an extent that it will impinge on the roof or walls and thus damage the refractories, but light scrap may often be piled up near the roof since the flame usually "cuts it down" rapidly before impingement on any roof area can persist long enough to do appreciable harm. When the nature of the scrap and the handling facilities are adequate to meet the aim of rapid charging, little thought is given to this feature of operation. Unfortunately, at times

Jan 1, 1944

In most surface mining operations, overall project economics is driven to a significant extent by the slope angles that can be achieved within the rock masses present. This is particularly true of precious metal pits in which stripping ratios can be relatively high, although examples from other non-precious metal operations (such as large iron ore and copper pits) can also be found. As a consequence, it is not surprising that in most large (deep) open pit mines, relatively small changes in slope angle (of the order of two or three degrees can translate into changes in project value measured in the tens or even hundreds of millions of dollars. Understanding how this potential value can be realised, and quantifying the associated risks, should be one of the key outcomes of modern slope engineering practice. In striving for optimised slope angles, therefore, mining companies and their specialist consultants are increasingly turning to more sophisticated methods of engineering open pit walls. This paper summarises contemporary slope engineering practice as well as some of the key technical issues that are either currently being researched or will need to be researched in the future. It is written in the context of the slope engineering process; namely, data collection and analysis, failure mode identification and stability assessment, slope design, slope formation, and slope (face) mapping and monitoring (the latter two activities being the primary on-going data collection functions that close the design loop).

Jan 1, 2002

A study was conducted by the Bureau of Mines to evaluate natural gas as an automotive fuel and to provide guidelines for optimum engine adjustments for low exhaust emissions. The study was conducted using a single-cylinder engine, a multicylinder engine, and a total of eight vehicles. Results from single-cylinder engine tests showed that the light-load, lean-limit misfire region for natural gas begins at an air-fuel ratio between 150 and 160 pct of stoichiometric. Changes in ignition timing significantly influenced emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, but had little effect on carbon monoxide emission. Low emissions can be achieved with current-design engines by adjustment of engine parameters, but only with heavy penalty to engine performance. Emissions from vehicles fueled with natural gas are virtually unaffected by ambient temperature change within the range 20° to 100° F. The organic emissions from engines fueled with natural gas were estimated to be 22 to 25 pct as reactive as the emissions produced using gasoline. Levels of exhaust emissions from vehicles fueled with natural gas were unchanged over 10,000 miles of normal driving.

Jan 1, 1973

By J. L. Fitch, B. G. Hurd

The presence of gypsum in samples subjected to standard core analysis introduces serious errors in the measurement of water saturation and porosity. The magnitude of these errors, depending upon the type of analysis procedure used, has been evaluated experimentally and theoretically. Water-saturated pore volumes determined by vacuum distillation or retort procedures may be too high by as much as 48 per cent of the volume of gypsum present. The maximum error in this value determined by Dean-Stark extraction with toluene is 36 per cent of the gypsum volume. If pore space is measured by a Boyle&apos;s law type porosimeter the maximum erorr due to gypsum is 38 per cent of the original gypsum volume present. The conscientious core analyst may eliminate the errors caused by gypsum by either of two methods. He may apply suitable corrections for the water of crystallization removed from gypsum, or take special precautions to prevent dehydration of gypsum during core cleaning and alzalysis procedures. These alternatives are discussed and methods for obtaining reliable core analysis data are proposed. Gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O) occurs as a common mineral in many of the world&apos;s sedimentary basins. In addition to its presence as primary bedded evaporitic deposits, it is often found as secondary replacement zones and pore-fillings in host rocks. That it may cause false indications in porosity, both on neutron logs and in standard core analysis, has been generally recognized. False porosity interpretations from neutron logs result because the chemically bound water in gypsum attenuates neutrons as effectively as free water. Errors in core analysis result when gypsum is dehydrated prior to or during the analysis. Vacuum retort procedures used by many laboratories to determine fluid saturation and porosity effect a complete removal of water of crystallization from gypsum. The crystal water, distilled and collected with free water from the sample, is counted as water-sat11rated pore space. Dehydration of gypsum results in a decrease in volume occupied by calcium sulfate and a corresponding increase in pore volume. Thus, if gypsum is dehydrated by sample cleaning and drying procedures, subsequent porosity measurements with gas expansion or compression instruments will be high. The qualitative effect of gypsum on porosity determinations by retort procedures was discussed in a recent article by Bynum and Koepl3. They concluded that since false porosity was interpreted as being water saturated, determinations of oil content were not affected. Others in the industry, however, have pointed out that porosity values are often used with values of water saturation determined independently, e.g., from electric resistivity logs in making reserve estimates. Values of water saturation calculated from the formation resistivity using the Archie equation, S4= are actually low if values of are high due to gypsum. In this case, false porosity values due to gypsum could cause serious errors in calculations of oil-in-place. This investigation was made to determine quantitatively the effect of gypsum on porosity values determined by different core analysis procedures. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Dehydration of Gypsum The extent and rate of removal of water of crystallization from gypsum under conditions encountered in core analysis procedures were studied. Taken for the experiments were three types of relatively pure, naturally occurring gypsum, viz. selenite, satin spar and massive gypsum. Although all samples probably contained trace chemical impurities, each type lost the theoretical amount of water upon complete dehydration. An automatic recording thermobalance, similar to one described by Mauer2, was used to obtain dehydration rate data for samples heated in dry air. Water

By T. Shellhammer, A. Park

Among all pure metals, copper has the second highest thermal and electrical conductivity, next to silver. These properties coupled with a reasonable cost, make copper ideal for use in metallurgical vessels as a conductor of electrical current, as well as a lining material and protector of refractories and steel superstructures. Treatments of copper to address it’s softness and low melting point, specifically hard surfacing and calorizing, will be discussed. This paper will cover the evolution of copper to its current form, offer comparisons to other materials, and theoretical and empirical evidence on its superior performance in metallurgical vessels such as blast furnaces, basic oxygen converters and electric arc furnaces. Some case studies will be provided and finally a brief summary.

Jan 1, 2015

By R. R. Givler

Since the 1860&apos;s the good ole days, oil has been nozzle fed to burners under pressure atomizing the oil into droplets -- 1960&apos;s has produced vaporized oil that burns oil with the flame color and consistancy of gas -- If you can tell the difference by looking at the flame, gas or oil I?ll buy the lunch. First, we must ask, "Why all the excitement about Blue Flame?" This question is best answered by you after you have studied the principle of operation and see the result. I will attempt to explain both of these so that you can draw your own conclusions.

Jan 1, 1975

By Dave P. DeClerck

Hardman Construction was faced with the challenge of completing a large earth retention project on a constricted downtown Detroit site, while maintaining a safe and productive worksite. To do so, new technologies using robotic equipment was instituted. HISTORY The historic J.L. Hudson Building (Hudson’s) in Detroit, Michigan was the premier retailer in the city’s downtown district from the 1890s through the 1960s. The massive flagship store sat at 1206 Woodward Avenue, one of the busiest streets in the Detroit area. Hudson’s broke ground in 1891 and would go through twelve renovations and expansions. The last renovations took place in 1946, which gave the building the title of being the largest department store in the world at the time. It spanned an entire city block and boasted 2.2 million square feet of retail space. By the 1970s, Detroit was in an economic downturn. The Hudson’s department store finally closed its doors in 1983. Besides a few working offices, the building sat vacant. The building was unique in that it had four levels underground, offices, mechanical areas, and equipment storage. Following years of neglect, the Hudson’s building was seized by the state and transferred into the hands of the city. The city had it demolished in 1998, (shown in Fig. 1) to construct a new, four- level underground parking garage as well as a potential future above-grade development (Sewlck, 2017). The building was imploded in one of the largest implosions of that time. The building rubble filled the underground rooms and helped to stabilize the exterior concrete walls and keep them from collapsing.

Jan 1, 2019

By Paul M. Tyler

The alkali metals , sodium and potassium , and more particularly sodium , occur abundantly in chemical combination with other elements . The elements themselves are available in metallic form but are so active chemically that they oxidize rapidly in contact merely with the air . Potassium will even catch fire spontaneously in air , and both the metals will decompose water with explosive violence . Inasmuch as they are almost as soft as wax they are not suitable for the structural or other mechanical uses characteristic of ordinary metals , and consequently the uses of these elements even in the metallic condition are based upon chemical rather than physical qualities . Sodium metal is used largely as a commercial reducing agent , but potassium metal is rarely found outside of chemical laboratories . Numerous salts and other compounds of these elements enter largely into world trade and are commercially very important , but none of these compounds except sodium peroxide and sodium cyanide are made economically from the metals . Sodium is generally considered as rather an uncommon metal , but in point of annual tonnage produced it is far more important than mercury , magnesium , molybdenum , bismuth, cadmium, cobalt , gold , silver , or the various rarer metals .

Apr 1, 1932

By R. L. Guerguerian, Eugene Bercel

"Grinding mill hydrostatic trunnion bearings require an external pumping source to provide and maintain the oil film between the bearing members. In order to guarantee a predetermined minimum film thickness, the lubrication system tends to be oversized. The oil film is ""indirectly"" controlled by flow, pressure and temperature monitors with fixed settings on the conservative side. This can lead to excessive maintenance and abbreviated life for the lubrication system components. A reliable method of monitoring actual film thickness would not only provide greater mill availability, but also minimize maintenance costs.This paper describes the instrumentation installed in Dominion hydrostatic bearings, and presents results of field tests where the output of that instrumentation was recorded under various operating conditions.IntroductionThe trend toward larger and more sophisticated grinding mills has made the operators of these machines increasingly vulnerable to financial loss, as the cost of downtime and repairs has increased directly with machine size. In order to guard against such losses, it is becoming imperative that large, sophisticated grinding mills be equipped with protective instrumentation to monitor some of the critical operating parameters and to identify events and trends which, if they go unnoticed, can lead to excessive maintenance costs and machine downtime. The idea of protective monitoring systems is not new. The operators of certain types of machinery where a high degree of safety is required or where machinery health can deteriorate very rapidly, as in the case of high-speed turbo-machinery, have long been using protective instrumentation on their machines. The increased awareness of the benefits of monitoring machinery conditions and the availability of reliable and relatively low-cost instrumentation of a large range of sophistication is making the practice now widespread. Traditionally, grinding mills have not been considered as high-risk machinery requiring instrumented protection. However, the trend, mentioned earlier, toward employing fewer, but larger capacity, mills increases the risk of significant disruption of production, and therefore measures to minimize the risks are desirable."

Jan 1, 1981

By K. C. Sclater

GAS as a factor in the efficiency of oil production, might be a better title for this paper as it deals in general with the significance of the gas-oil ratio as an index of the efficiency of oil production and briefly discusses oil production methods with reference to the gas-oil ratio in wells, particularly during the early life of a field. In the recent hearings held at Washington before the Federal Oil Conservation Board the fuller utilization of the energy contained in the gas occluded in or associated with the oil underground was stressed by some of the speakers when referring to greater ultimate recovery of oil. One speaker commenting on this point said in part, "There is ample evidence indicative that if the gas associated with the petroleum in our fields were conserved and elevated gas pressure maintained in the oil sands during their productive life, the ultimate production of oil could be greatly increased."

Jan 1, 1926

By D. G. Mason

During the design of copper refinery tankhouses, there is a need to develop mass balance calculations for many process components, so that optimum physical plant configuration is achieved. Each mass balance is complex, possibly with over 120 interactive variables as basic input data. Recent developments in tankhouse design (e.g. permanent cathodes) have greatly increased the design options available for any project, multiplying even further the requirement for calculations. In the past these calculations were tedious and susceptible to human error. A comprehensive computer program can now simplify the task of the process metallurgist, enabling more sophisticated and sensitive plant designs to be produced. The paper describes the successful development of a flexible mass balance program that originallly was used in a feasibility study which had to be completed within a short time schedule. The program has been further developed and used for design and energy calculations; it can be usefully applied to existing plants to assess the impact of variations in operating parameters. The software takes account of staged liberation, electrolyte purification bleed and generates a reliable process inventory listing: it can also cope with stripper starting sheet options and disparate commercial circuits.

Jan 1, 1987

By A. J. Keast

This circular is one of a series dealing with the exploration, equipping, and development of mining properties, prepared and published by the United States Bureau of Mines in cooperation with various mining and exploration companies in the United States and Canada. This series of papers will supplement an earlier one which covered the methods and costs of mining and milling at a large number of producing mines. The present paper describes the exploration, equipping, and developing of a group of 18 claims remote from rail transportation, and the transport of equipment and heavy supplies for a distance of 120 miles by tractor over ice and winter roads, and of men and lighter supplies by airplane.

Jan 1, 1933

By Dave Weymer

Falling timber in BC has always been a hazardous job. Huge, often rotting trees and steep, rugged terrain combine to create difficult and dangerous conditions. Death and injury rates are among the highest of any occupation in North America. In BC, the men that head out, saw in hand, are called fallers.

Jan 1, 2013

By Xiang Sun

Microwave processing has been under continuous development as an advanced heating method in modern industries. However, problems with uneven heating still remain. Although heating uniformity is highly dependant on the properties of the materials being heated, proper furnace design to prevent uneven field distribution is another important factor. As an alternative to experimental measurements and adjustments to find appropriate furnace parameters, computer simulation is a convenient method for modeling, understanding, and improving the uniformity of microwave heating. This paper discusses current modeling technologies as well as applicable techniques for improving microwave heating uniformity. The purpose is to give a basic understanding on how to find, analyze, and minimize the problems associated with uneven heating in microwave processing.

Jan 1, 2006